Tampilkan postingan dengan label Ilmu Budaya Dasar. Tampilkan semua postingan
Kelebihan :
- Pengalaman pribadi dalam belajar : pilihan untuk mandiri dalam belajar menjadikan siswa untuk berusaha melangkah maju, memilih sendiri peralatan yang digunakan untuk penyampaian belajar mengajar, mengumpulkan bahan-bahan sesuai dengan kebutuhan.
- Mengurangi biaya : lembaga penyelenggara e-Learning dapat mengurangi bahkan menghilangkan biaya perjalanan untuk pelatihan, menghilangkan biaya pembangunan sebuah kelas dan mengurangi waktu yang dihabiskan oleh pelajar untuk pergi ke sekolah.
- Mudah dicapai: pemakai dapat dengan mudah menggunakan aplikasi e-Learning dimanapun juga selama mereka terhubung ke internet. e-Learning dapat dicapai oleh para pemakai dan para pelajar tanpa dibatasi oleh jarak, tempat dan waktu. Kemampuan bertanggung jawab : Kenaikan tingkat, pengujian, penilaian, dan pengesahan dapat diikuti secara otomatis sehingga semua peserta (pelajar, pengembang dan pemilik) dapat bertanggung jawab terhadap kewajiban mereka masing- masing di dalam proses belajar mengajar.
Kekurangan :
- Kurangnya interaksi antara pengajar dan pelajar atau bahkan antar pelajar itu sendiri. Kurangnya interaksi ini bisa memperlambat terbentuknya values dalam proses belajar mengajar.Kecenderungan mengabaikan aspek akademik atau aspek sosial dan sebaliknya mendorong tumbuhnya aspek bisnis/komersial.
- Proses belajar mengajar cenderung ke arah pelatihan daripada pendidikan.
- Berubahnya peran pengajar dari yang semula menguasai teknik pembelajaran konvensional, kini juga dituntut mengetahui teknik pembelajaran yang menggunakan ICT (Information, Communication and Technology). Tidak semua tempat tersedia fasilitas internet ( mungkin hal ini berkaitan dengan masalah tersedianya listrik, telepon ataupun komputer).
- Kurangnya mereka yang mengetahui dan memiliki keterampilan tentang internet.
- Kurangnya penguasaan bahasa komputer.
Thanks to :
Referensi :
Tugas Analisis Situs E-Learning
International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring
Engineering (IJITEE) ISSN: 2278-3075, Volume-2, Issue-1, December 2012
Devajit Mahanta,
Majidul Ahmed
Abstract
E-Learning is the use of technology to enable people to learn anytime and
anywhere. E-Learning can include training, the delivery of just-in-time
information and guidance from experts. It has become an increasingly popular
learning approach in higher educational institutions due to the rapid growth of
Internet technologies. E-Learning allows users to fruitfully gather knowledge
and education both by synchronous and asynchronous methodologies to effectively
face the need to rapidly acquire up to date know-how within productive
environments. There is also present various limitations in E-Learning. This
review work discusses on various E-Learning Objectives, methodologies and tools
and limitation of E-Learning. The main focus of e-learning methodologies is on
both asynchronous and synchronous methodology. The paper looked into the three
major e-learning tools .The paper also looked E-Learning limitation in
particular related with technologies, personal issues, comparison with
traditional campus learning, design issues, and other issues .Finally the paper
suggests that synchronous tools should be integrated into asynchronous
environments to allow for “any-time” learning model and also given a remark
that E-Learning needs to improve from various barriers.
Keywords: E-learning; Methodology; Tools; Limitation;
Synchronous tools
I. INTRODUCTION
E-learning includes all forms of
electronically supported learning and teaching. The information and
communication systems, whether networked learning or not, serve as specific
media to implement the learning process [1]. This often involves both
out-of-classroom and in-classroom educational experiences via technology, even
as advances continue in regard to devices and curriculum. E-learning is the
computer and network-enabled transfer of skills and knowledge.
E-learning applications and processes include Web-based learning,
computer-based learning, virtual education opportunities and digital
collaboration. Content is delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio
or video tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM. It can be self-pace or instructor-led
and includes media in the form of text, image, animation, streaming video and
audio.
It is commonly thought that new technologies can make a big
difference in education. In young ages especially, children can use the huge
interactivity of new media, and develop their skills, knowledge, and perception
of the world, under their parents' monitoring, of course. Many proponents of
e-learning believe that everyone must be equipped with basic knowledge in
technology, as well as use it as a medium to reach a particular goal and aim.In
the 20th century, we have moved from the Industrial Age through the Information
Age and now to the Knowledge Age. Knowledge and its efficient management constitute
the key to success and survival for organizations in the highly dynamic and
competitive world of today. Efficient acquisition, storage, transfer,
retrieval, application, and visualization of knowledge often distinguish
successful organizations from the unsuccessful ones. The ability to obtain,
assimilate, and apply the right knowledge effectively will become a key skill
in the next century. Learning is the key to achieving our full potential. Our
survival in the 21first century as individuals, organizations, and nations will
depend upon our capacity to learn and the application of what we learn to our
daily lives.
E-learning has the potential to transform how and when employees
learn. Learning will become more integrated with work and will use shorter, more
modular, just-in-time delivery systems. By leveraging workplace technologies,
e-learning is bridging the gap between learning and work. Workers can integrate
learning into work more effectively because they use the same tools and
technology for learning as they use for work. Both employers and employees
recognize that e-learning will diminish the narrowing gap between work and
home, and between work and learning. E-learning is an option to any
organization looking to improve the skills and capacity of its employees. With
the rapid change in all types of working environments, especially medical and
healthcare environments, there is a constant need to rapidly train and retrain
people in new technologies, products, and services found within the environment.
There is also a constant and unrelenting need for appropriate management and
leveraging of the knowledge base so that it is readily available and accessible
to all stakeholders within the workplace environment.
II. WHAT IS E-LEARNING?
E-learning is
an education via the Internet, network, or standalone computer. E-learning is
basically the network- enabled convey of skills and knowledge(Fig-1).
E-learning refers to using electronic applications and processes to learn.
E-learning applications and processes include Web-based learning,
Computer-based learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration. EL is
when content is delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio or video
tape, satellite TV, and CD- ROM. E-learning was first called
"Internet-Based training" then "Web-Based Training" Today
you will still find these terms being used, along with variations of
E-learning. EL is not only about training and instruction but also about
learning that is tailored to individual [1],[2].There are six core aims of the
e-learning programmed concern [5], they are-
A. Practitioner confidence and skills
B. Learner access and choice
C. Flexible, customizable systems and
tools
D. Enabling, cost-effective technical
infrastructures
E. Enabling, responsive e-learning
policies and processes
F. Institutions using e-learning to
widen participation, deliver flexible opportunities, support work-based
learning.
Fig-1: E-Learning devices
III. E-LEARNING OBJECTIVES
E-Learning represents an innovative
shift in the field of learning, providing rapid access to specific knowledge
and information [4]. It offers online instruction that can be delivered anytime
and anywhere through a wide range of electronic learning solutions such as
Web-based courseware, online discussion groups, live virtual classes, video and
audio streaming, Web chat, online simulations, and virtual mentoring (fig-2).
E-Learning enables organizations to
transcend distance and other organizational gaps by providing a cohesive
virtual learning environment. Companies must educate and train vendors,
employees, partners, and clients to stay competitive and E-Learning can provide
such just-in-time training in a cost-effective way.
Developing and deploying effective
E-Learning programs may require products and services supplied by a variety of
vendors, leaving one to connect the dots. One way to start is to define the
goals of the desired learning solution. Definition of the goals of an
E-Learning solution is driven by the following factors:
3.1 Perform task
analysis
Determine the tasks to be taught,
identify subtasks and other elements involved, and identify the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes required to complete the tasks efficiently and
effectively.
3.2 Perform
training needs analysis
Identify the target audience for the
training. Identify the shortfall in knowledge, skills, and attitudes of this
audience and determine what the target learners need to know.
3.3 Review existing capabilities
Review existing methods
and infrastructure for providing training or meeting learning needs.
3.4 Determine
expectations
Identify concrete expectations and/or
ROI requirements from the desired E-Learning solution. The development of an
E-Learning strategy begins by setting goals. What will the E-Learning strategy
accomplish? Without a true understanding of the goals of the E-Learning
strategy, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to be successful.
Before implementing E-Learning,
organizations need to set common goals or objectives. Common goals and
objectives include the following:
3.5 To reduce
learning costs
As a small business owner, you know
that online transactions cost a fraction as much those requiring paper or
staff. It‟s the same with E-Learning because there are no papers, no delays,
and no travel expenses. To reduce the time required for effective learning
Electronic learning is sometimes called “just-in-time” learning. Such learning
enables employees to take what they have just learned from their computer
screens and apply it to the tasks at hand.
3.6 To motivate
employees
E-Learning is considered an effective
way to keep up with new technology, to generate new ideas, and to keep your
workforce fresh and inspired.
3.7 To improve
flexibility of course delivery
Most smaller businesses don‟t have
the staff to manage their training and development initiatives. E-Learning
technologies can overcome these administrative restrictions
3.8 To expand
the capabilities of the business
Small organizations need to get more
out of their high-potential employees. E-Learning helps employers take these
employees to a higher level of contribution.
Other
goals and objectives include the following:
•
To
reduce the need for classroom training
•
To
track employee progress
•
To
track training effectiveness (or absorption)
•
To
link training with Knowledge Management
•
To
reduce time away from the job
•
To
improve job performance
•
To
support business objectives
•
To
make learning available anytime, anywhere
Many organizations justify their
E-Learning initiatives after the fact by eliminating related jobs or reducing
training-related travel expenditures. Although these are viable cost savings,
they should not be the sole motivation for an E-Learning initiative. E-Learning
must demonstrate that employees are learning more efficiently and retaining
more of the curriculum compared with in-class training.
IV.
CATEGORIES OF E-LEARNING
These are considered as follows:-
4.1 Courses
Most discussion of e-learning focuses
on educational courses. Educational course materials or courseware are usually
modified and added with various different media and are uploaded to a networked
environment for online accessing. Today, there are several popular learning
management systems (LMS) such as WebCT and Blackboard which are commonly used
by educational institutions. E-learning has distinct similarities with
classroom environment whereby both of the learners and the instructors are
together related to the common course arrangement and flow.
4.2 Informal
Learning systems
According to Wikipedia, “informal
Learning system has no curriculum and is not professionally organized but
rather originates accidentally, sporadically…" Jay Cross[14], one of the
biggest advocates of informal learning, describes it like this:
Informal learning is the unofficial,
unscheduled, impromptu way most of us learn to do our jobs. Informal learning
is like riding a bicycle: the rider chooses the destination and the route. The
cyclist can take a detour at a moment‟s notice to admire the scenery or help a
fellow rider.Cross opined that in workplace we acquire more knowledge during
break time than in a formal learning environment. We progress more in our jobs
through informal learning, sometimes using trial and error and other times
through conversations.
4.3 Blended
Learning
Integrated learning provides a good
transition from classroom learning to e-learning. Integrated learning which is
also referred to as blended learning is a combination of a face to face and
online learning. The productiveness of this method cannot be over emphasized.
It encourages educational and information review beyond the classroom settings.
Blended learning combines several different delivery methods, such as
collaboration software, web-base courses and computer communication practices
with face to face instruction. Integrated learning utilizes the best of
classrooms with the best of online learning.
4.4 Communities
Learning is social [1].The frequent
challenges we battled with in our business milieu are sophisticated and
unstable. Because we are in the global era, our methods of problem solving are
changing daily. Therefore people dialogue with other members of the same
organization or network globally to other organization. Communities strongly
contribute to the flow of tacit knowledge.
4.5 Knowledge
Management
Early Knowledge management (KM)
technologies included online corporate yellow pages as expertise locators and
document management systems. Combined with the early development of
collaborative technologies (in particular Lotus Notes), KM technologies
expanded in the mid-1990s. Subsequent KM efforts leveraged semantic
technologies for search and retrieval and the development of e-learning tools for
communities of practice. Knowledge management is an essential process which is
concern with how to create atmosphere for people to share knowledge on
distribution, adoption and information exchange activities in an
organization.The semblance of knowledge management and the theory of e-learning
reveals powerful relationship which is causing disarray between the two fields.
4.6 Learning
Networks
Learning network is a procedure of
developing and preserving relationship with people and information and communicating
to support each other‟s learning. Therefore (LN) is enhancing and it offers
chances to its members to engage online with each other, sharing knowledge and
expertise. [13] States that, the use of pen and paper in our educational system
today is producing inadequacy and challenges in the global era that we are in
today where subject matter is changing speedily “E-learning provides a new set
of tools that can add value to all the traditional learning modes - classroom
experiences, textbook study, CD-ROM, and traditional computer-based training.”
Old-world learning models do not scale to meet the new world learning
challenges. E-learning can provide the tools to meet that challenge.
V.
E-LEARNING METHODOLOGIES
With the resources provided by communication
technologies, E-learning has been employed in multiple universities, as well as
in wide range of training centers and schools. E-learning exploits Web
technology as its basic technical infrastructure to deliver knowledge. As the
current trend of academic and industrial realities is to increase the use of
e-learning, in the near future a higher demand of technology support is
expected. In particular, software tools supporting the critical task of
instruction design should provide automated support for the analysis, design
documentation, implementation, and deployment of instruction via Web.
A. Interaction in Learning
Learner(s) - Tutors(s) Interaction, and Learner(s) -Learner(s)
Interaction: these two types of interactions are among humans, and they are the
interaction forms that people are most familiar with. Therefore, most research
studies are focusing on these two types of interaction, especially in the
research of Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL). According to
[13], if collaboration rather than individual learning designs were used in an
online class, students should be more motivated to actively participate and
should perceive the medium as relatively friendly and personal as a result of
the online social interactions. This increased active group interaction and
participation in the online course, hence, resulted in higher perceptions of
self-reported learning. Whereas individuals working alone online tended to be
less motivated, perceive lower levels of learning, and score lower on the test
of mastery.In CSCL, researchers usually distinguish two types of interactions
between learner- tutor and learner- learner. The first one, synchronous
interaction, requires that all participants of interaction are online at the
same time. Examples include Internet voice telephone, video teleconferencing,
text-based chat systems, instant messaging systems, text-based virtual learning
environments, graphical virtual reality environments, and net based virtual
auditorium or lecture room systems. Synchronous interaction promotes faster
problem solving, scheduling and decision making, and provides increased
opportunities for developing. In 2000, Heron et al. studied the interaction in
virtual learning groups supported by synchronous communication. They found that
learning in virtual environments can be greatly enhanced by content-related
dialogues with minor off-task talk, coherent subject matter discussion with
explanation, and equal participation of students supported by synchronous
interaction . However, the cost of synchronous interaction is usually very
high, and synchronous interaction is more constricted dueto time differences.
The second one is asynchronous interaction, in which learners or tutors have
freedom of time and location to participate in the interaction, examples
including interaction using e-mail, discussion forums, and bulletin board
systems. It has been reported that by extending interactions to times outside
of classes, more persistent interaction and closer interpersonal bonds among
students can occur [12]. Thus, while one cannot totally simulate a real
classroom with synchronous interaction, one can offer asynchronous interaction
that provides time for better reflection, and allows global communication
un-bounded by time zone constraints. Asynchronous interaction thus is more
commonly provided in CSCL systems than the costly synchronous interaction.
There are seven-step development methodology is applicable on every E-Learning
(fig-2).
Fig-2: seven-step development methodology is
applicable on every E-Learning
VI. E-LEARNING TOOLS
Here we discuss three types of e-learning tools:
curriculum tools,digital library tools and knowledge representation tools.
6.1. Curriculum
Tools.
This tools are used in school and
college of education system for given education. Materials are selected and
organized to facilitate class activities. Additional tools, such as discussion
forums and online quizzes, are integrated to support collaboration and evaluation.
A typical commercial curriculum tool includes three integrated parts:
instructional tools, administration tools, and student tools. Instructional
tools include curriculum design and online quizzes with automated grading.
Administration tools include file management authentication, and authorization.
Student tool functions include:
- Browsing class material: readings, assignments, projects, other resources
- bCollaboration and sharing: and asynchronous synchronous bulletin boards and discussion forums.
- Learning progress scheduling and tracking: assignment reminders and submission, personal calendars, and activity logs.
- Self-testing and evaluation: tests designed by instructors to evaluate student performance
- Web CT and Blackboard are the most popular commercial curriculum tools.
6.2. Digital
library Tool
It focus on locating resources. It
support the exploration and collection phases of information search. Digital
library features usually include search, browsing, and discovering special
collections or exhibits. Search and browsing are used to locate resources and
explore related topics. Special collections or exhibits contain organized
materials representing a unique treasure for interested users.
6.3 Knowledge
Representation Tool
It help learners to visually review,
capture, or develop knowledge. Curriculum tools rely primarily on a text-based,
syllabus approach to describing course content. This approach often fails to
delineate the relationship of concepts and skills covered in one course to
those covered in another. It also fails to show the knowledge base that a
learner will have acquired at the end of his/her course of study. A
visualization tool can engage both learners and instructors in an active
learning process when they construct spatial semantic displays of the
knowledge, concepts, and skills that the learner possesses and acquires . In
2009 top 10 E-learnging find(fig-3).
Fig-3: 2009
Top 10 E-Learning Tools
VII.
LIMITATIONS OF E-LEARNING
The
various limitations of e-learning can be categorized as technological
limitations, limitations compared to traditional campus, and personal issues
limitations.
7.1
Technological and hardware limitations
Students need necessary hardware for
e-learning such as desktop or notebook computers and printers (Kathawala,
Abdou, Elmulti, 2002;Hiltz, 1997). Therefore, one of the major technological
limitations of e-learning is the necessity of computer hardware and relevant
resources. Sambrook (2003) mentioned that the lack of hardware to support
e-learning in organizations is one of the factors why Small and Medium
Enterprises are not willing to Engage in e-learning to educate its employees.
Hardware and other ICT resources are necessary for e-learning implementation in
institutions. In addition to the limited Internet coverage, technological
barriers, such as limited bandwidth, are issues in e-learning today, even with
fast DSL connections introduced to replace outdated 14.4 Kbps bandwidth (Chadha
& Kumail, 2002, p.28). Roy (1996, p.9) provided another example of a slow
connection when students in Rhode Island and Green Island could not provide
answers for their instructor during an online discussion session. While
e-learning is supposed to be a multimedia-rich learning environment, the
limited bandwidth may hinder the learning process as the downloading of
multimedia materials may take a longer time. Good examples of poor transfer
rate that hinders the video streaming happened in Northern Arizona University
and the National University of Singapore, where video frames transmitted via
the Internet could freeze up and the audio could be interrupted at times (Collins,
2002; Lee and Al- Hawamdeh, 2001). Pachnowski (2003) further mentioned the
problems of video conferencing as listed above caused delay in class start time
and some other additional complications like loss of audio. As a result, it is
not surprising that many E-Learning courses are still text-based as the
Internet bandwidth may still be limited.
7.2 Personal
issues
Carr (1999) mentioned that the lack
of ICT skills is one of the barriers in e-learning training. As e-learning is
the product of the advanced technology, e-learners will have to learn new
skills and responsibilities related to the technology (Angelina, 2002a, p.12).
E-learners should be Information & Communication Technology (ICT) savvy.
Hamid (2002) stated that technical skills could cause frustration to e-learning
students due to the unconventional e-learning environment and isolation from
others. Consequently, having to learn new technologies may be a barrier or
disadvantage in e-learning for ICT novices. E-learning is not an easy task for
many as it requires a lot of selfdiscipline. Schott et al. (2003) asserted that
the e-learning success rate was very dependent on students‟ abilities to be
selfdirected and internally motivated. It is therefore reasonable for Rivera
and Rice (2002) to comment that learners who are not self-motivated will find
web-based learning an unsatisfactory experience. In an e-learning environment,
learners need to manage their learning and schedule their assignments (Grant
& Spencer, 2003). This is rather different from the traditional learning
environment where learners need to attend some courses in physical classrooms,
and they need to do their assignments or take examinations within a certain
time frame (Miller & Corley, 2001). As a result, e-learning learners may
take a longer time to graduate, as compared to traditional students who need to
complete their studies within a time frame (Choy, 2002). Learners with poor
writing skills may be at a disadvantage in ane-learning environment (Smith
& Rupp, 2004).
7.3 Limitations
compared to Traditional Campus
McAleavy and McCystral (1996) found
out that half of the students for an Advance Diploma in Education from the
University of Ulster commented that it was rather hard to seek advice, as
compared to face-to-face instruction. Physical classrooms however will enable
learners to learn faster, as they can always refer to the instructors or peers
for guidance. Body language is absent in e-learning. An example is when a
student stated that he missed “facial and hand gestures”, from which important
cues can be derived (Meyer, 2003). The lack of physical interactions shown
above will hinder the learning process as pointed out by McKnight (2000), that
the omission of observation of student emotions may prevent professors or
instructors from responding to student‟s needs. Apart from this lack of
physical interaction, e-learning is also criticized for not having facilities
like traditional campuses: internship, volunteer opportunities, access to
physical library, book stores, career and development counselling (McCraken,
2004).
7.4 Design
Limitations
Poor design of the e-learning
courseware is a major issue for learners and e-learning providers, as pointed
out by Ivergard & Hunt (2005). Since e-learning is designed basically for
the ICT savvy, it may be too technical for ICT novices (James-Gordon, Young
& Bal, 2003). Angelina (2002b, p.12) also stressed the importance of
ensuring equality of access to learners from all backgrounds and walks of
society. In short, the courseware should be easy to use and come with detailed
guidance and ultimately be suitable for all learners.Kearsley (2000) also mentioned
there that there are many software applications that the providers and
instructors have to consider before offering an online course. The
appropriateness of the courseware may increase the learner‟s satisfaction
(Grooms, 2003). Therefore, selecting an appropriate courseware to suilearners
seems to be a difficult task.
VIII.
CONCLUSION
E-learning
is among the most important explosion propelled by the internet transformation.
This allows users to fruitfully gather knowledge and education both by synchronous
and asynchronous methodology to effectively face the need to rapidly acquire up
to date know-how within productive environments. E-learning delivers content
through electronic information and communications technologies (ICTs).
According to [2], the use of these facilities, involves various methods which
includes systematized feedback system, computer-based operation network, video
conferencing and audio conferencing, internet worldwide websites and computer
assisted instruction. This delivery method increases the possibilities for how,
where and when employees can engage in lifelong learning. Finally we conclude
that synchronous tools should be integrated into asynchronous environments to
allow for “Any-time” learning model. This environment would be primarily
asynchronous with background discussion, assignments and assessment taking
place and managed through synchronous tools that integrate into the
asynchronous environment. It is also finding that E-learning seems unsuitable
for those individuals without self-discipline. Some times it requires a lot of
self-discipline, mostly because learners are busy working adults as explained
earlier. Besides, E-learners also seemed to need preparatory training
especially in ICT skills in order for them to get used to e-learning
environment.
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Policy, vol.11, no.3, pp.246-260.
Devajit Mahanta,M.Phil, He receive his MCA degree from the Punjab Technical
University in 2008 and M.Phil (Computer Science) from CMJ
University,Meghalaya,India in 2011 .He is a Assistant professor in the
department of Computer Science in the Nalbari college(under Gauhati University
)for the past 5yrs. At the moment he is a PhD student in the department of
Computer Science in the Faculty of computer Science of CMJ University,
Meghalaya,India. devajitmahantah@sify.com +91-9864147912 
Majidul Ahmed, PhD He did his PhD at Gauhati University,Guwahati,Assam. He
worked as a Assistant professor and HOD, Department of Information Technology,
Gauhati Commerce College (under Gauhati University), Guwahati Assam (India) for
the past 9yrs.
The Journal about E-Learning
Konflik adalah keadaan dimana interaksi tidak berlangsung menurut nilai dan norma sehingga terjadi pertentangan atu pertikaian atas dasar berbagai kepentingan yang berbeda[7]. Konflik merupakan proses atau keadaan dimana dua pihak atau lebih berusaha menggagalkan tujuan pihak lain kerena ada perbedaan pendapat, atau tuntutan-tuntutan masing-masing pihak.
Dalam hal ini diferensiasi sosial bisa juga menimbulkan suatu konflik seperti contoh di poso yaitu konflik antar agama. Konflik semacam ini bisa terjadi karena tidak adanya perasaan paling benar mengenai agama yang dianut oleh masing-masing pihak. Mereka berusaha menggagalkan tujuan/usaha dari etnik lain yang mempunyai kebudayaan berbeda.
Konflik dapat dikatakan merupakan suatu yang sementara sifatnya. Jika suatu konflik dapat diatasi, maka masyarakat dapat kembali kearah integrasi dan keteraturan.
Konflik pada dasarnya bukan suatu hal yang diinginkan. Oleh karena itu, jika terjadi konflik dalam suatu kelompok atau masyarakat, mereka harus segera diatasi. Cara-cara untuk mengatasi konflik:
a. Memaksa pihak-pihak yang bertikai untuk segera mengakhiri konflik
b. Memaksa pihak-pihak yang bertikai untuk berunding
c. Menggunakan jasa mediator (penengah)
d. Meminta bantuan pihak ketiga
e. Mempertemukan keinginan-keinginan pihak yang bertikai demi tercepainya tujuan bersama yang diprakarsai penitia tetap
f. Menganjurkan bertoleransi kepada kelompok-kelompok sosial yang berbeda
g. Mengadakan gencatan senjata
h. Membawa kasus ke pengadilan
i. Penyesuaian kembali
Kerusuhan dan pertikaian yang terjadi di berbagai daerah khususnya di Indonesia menurut beberapa orag menunjukkan antara lain kurangnya kemampuan pemerintah dalam mengatasi penyebab terjadinya konflik sosial antar masyarakat. Konflik muncul dengan menggunakan simbol-simbol etnis, agama, dan ras. Hal ini kemungkinan terjadi akibat adanya akumulasi "tekanan" secara mental, spiritual, politik, sosial, budaya dan ekonomi yang dirasakan oleh sebagian masyarakat.
Kerusuhan atau huru-hara terjadi kala sekelompok orang berkumpul bersama untuk melakukan tindak kekerasan, biasanya sebagai tindak balas terhadap perlakuan yang dianggap tidak adil ataupun sebagai upaya penentangan terhadap sesuatu. Alasan yang sering menjadi penyebab kerusuhan termasuk kondisi hidup yang buruk, penindasan pemerintah terhadap rakyat, konflik agama atau etnis, serta keberadaan sesuatu yang dianggap kurang sesuai dengan keinginan kelompok tertentu.
Mengatasi Konflik Dalam Diri
Setiap manusia pasti memiliki kekhawatiran dan ketakutan. Kecemasan dan kehawatiran adalah fitrah agar manusia mampu bertahan hidup. Tapi, konfilk dan kecemasan juga bisa berbalik mengancam hidup seseorang. Pandangan lama cenderung melihat konflik dan kecemasan sebagai suatu hal negatif. Namun, temuan-temuan belakangan justru menunjukan bahwa konflik—jika dikelola dengan tepat—dapat menjadikan seseorang lebih unggul.
Setiap orang memang unik, sekalipun psikolog telah mengenalkan prinsip kepribadian. Tapi, kita masih saja sulit untuk membaca dengan jelas isi hati seseorang. Itu dikarenakan manusia mempunyai dua hal berkaitan dengan emosi: Suasana hati dan afek. Suasana hati (mood) adalah emosi internal yang memengaruhi individu dalam mempersepsikan dunia. Sedangkan afek adalah respon emosi eksternal yang ditunjukan pada sekitar. Sering kita temui orang yang bertato-tindik (garang) tapi, sebenarnya rapuh di dalam.
Remaja memiliki emosi yang cenderung tinggi dan impulsif. Ini terkait erat dengan masa perkembangan kepribadian remaja yang penuh dengan kecemasan. Penelitian menunjukan konsistensi kepribadian seseorang. Remaja yang ceria akan jadi orang dewasa yang ceria. Sedangkan, remaja pengeluh juga akan menjadi orang dewasa pengeluh. Dengan kata lain remaja yang memelihara kecemasan dan membiarkan dirinya tidak berdaya. Akan tumbuh jadi orang dewasa pencemas dan tak berdaya pula.
Pengembangan metode untuk mengatasi konflik ialah salah satu tugas perkembangan remaja. Anak muda bukan tidak mau mendengar nasihat orang dewasa. Tapi, terdapat perbedaan mendasar antara pola komunikasi remaja dan orang dewasa. Jika kita minta pendapat teman sebaya. Itu tidak akan diikuti dengan kewajiban untuk melaksanakanya. Berbeda dengan orang dewasa yang menceramahi dan menyuruh kita melakukanya. Mereka selalu menganggap kita masih kecil dan tidak tahu apa yang harus dilakukan.
Anak muda adalah kaum yang terpinggirkan dan sulit mencari pegangan. Dibilang anak kecil bukan tapi, dikatakan dewasa juga belum. Ini yang membuat remaja membutuhkan orientasi sosial-budaya tertentu. James S. Coleman mengemukakan teori kebudayaan anak muda (youth culture) yang didasarkan pada perilaku remaja Amerika di era 60 dan 70-an. Mereka menamakan diri generasi bunga (flower generation). Anak muda pada zaman itu melakukan hal-hal yang menyimpang dari kebiasaan orang dewasa. Mereka berpakaian compang-camping, melakukan seks bebas, mendengarkan musik rock, mempelajari mistisisme India, memanjangkan rambut, dan mengonsumsi narkoba.
Pakar lainya, Allison Davis mengemukakan gagasanya tentang kecemasan yang tersosialisasi (socialized anxiety). Ia berpendat bahwa kepribadian individu berkembang sesuai dengan gagasan, kepercayaan, nilai, dan norma yang dianut kebudayaanya. Contohnya adalah remaja yang tinggal di kota akan berbeda kepribadianya dengan remaja di desa. Interaksi antara remaja dan kebudayaan sekitar disebut sosialisasi. Sedangkan kecemasan sendiri terjadi akibat dorongan untuk menyesuaikan diri dengan kebudayaan. Karena bila tidak sesuai, seseorang akan terancam dihukum, dibenci, atau dikucilkan.
Nilai yang dominan dalam kebudayaan anak muda di antaranya adalah hura-hura, penerimaan teman sebaya, kepemilikan tunggangan, keunggulan dalam olahraga, punya pacar, dsbg. Kebudayaan adalah tolok ukur seorang dalam berperilaku. Maka itu, anak muda menganggap hal ini penting. Kebudayaan menyediakan pedoman, dukungan, rasa aman, kasih sayang, legitimasi, persetujuan, dan pengingkaran pada remaja. Lingkungan kota menciptakan ruang yang makin lebar antara anak dan orang tua. Remaja kota cenderung lebih banyak meluangkan waktu dengan teman sebaya ketimbang di rumah. Ini yang membuat kepribadian remaja kota cukup banyak dipengaruhi kebudayaan anak muda. Dibandingkan dengan mereka yang tinggal di desa.
Kebudayaan anak muda adalah konflik utama yang menciptakan stres di kalangan remaja. Di satu sisi mereka harus berhasil di sekolah (budaya orang dewasa). Sedangkan di sisi lain mereka harus tetap diterima teman sebaya (budaya anak muda). Stres berarti gangguan atau kekacauan mental dan emosional yang disebabkan oleh faktor luar. Gangguan timbul karena remaja diharuskan berhasil dua-duanya. Dalam hal ini anak muda memang harus memiliki kemampuan mandiri untuk mengatasi stres dan konflik.
Strategi Menyelsaikan Konflik daDiri
Seperti yang dikemukakan John Locke dan dikuatkan oleh para psikolog behaviorisme. Perilaku manusia merupakan hasil dari adaptasi terhadap stimulasi lingkungan. Ketika kita menerima suatu tekanan dan mengatasinya dengan suatu cara tertentu. Maka, individu akan mempelajari tekanan dan hasil dari caranya tersebut. Seperti saat kita sering dipotong pembicaraanya oleh seseorang. Ada beberapa respon yang mungkin terjadi: Diam dan menyimpulkan atau berlaku asertif.
Orang yang hanya diam biasanya akan memendam perasaan negatif. Pada ujungnya ia tidak mau lagi terlibat dengan orang tersebut. Ini bisa menjadi awal dari pengucilan diri secara sosial. Ketimbang berbicara di belakang dan mendiamkan. Lebih baik kita bersikap spontan dan jujur pada saat omongan itu dipotong. katakan, “Maaf, ini masih waktu saya untuk berbicara. Jadi, mohon dihormati!” ini akan terdengar lebih langsung dan jujur (asertif). Sehingga orang akan belajar bahwa perbuatanya salah dan mulai menghargai kita.
Perilaku memendam perasaan negatif akan merusak silaturahmi. Sehingga tiap kali bertemu si biang kerok pikiran kita bisa stres. Tapi, apabila memang orang itu sudah sifatnya begitu. Maka, terimalah sebagai suatu yang wajar! Karena ini akan membantu mengantisipasi stres. Kemampuan menangani stres dan konflik juga bergantung pada kualitas diri seseorang. Individu yang rendah diri akan sensitif sekali terhadap penilaian orang. Sedikit saja kritikan akan membuat mereka merasa tak berguna.
Pernahkah anda mendengar kalimat “Aku tidak peduli mereka mau bilang apa”? Jika memang tidak peduli, kenapa dikatakan? Orang-orang ini amat tersakiti oleh pendapat masyarakat terhadap diri mereka. Maka, mereka berusaha melakukan penyangkalan (denial). Hal ini juga termasuk dalam cara untuk mengatasi kecemasan dan stres (defense mechanism). Tapi seperti yang dikemukakan di atas, hal itu justru akan menciptakan jarak emosional.
Lalu, apa yang harus dilakukan? Semua orang menganggap dirinya unik dan istimewa. Kelima panca indera hanya mampu menangkap rangsangan dari luar dan tidak ada yang menerima rangsangan dari dalam. Kombinasi dua hal ini dapat membuat orang tidak mengenali dirinya sendiri—sekalipun sudah berkaca. Mereka akan tetap berkutat dalam identitas yang mereka bangun sendiri. Hal ini akan memicu perilaku manipulatif. Senyum pada orang padahal jaga jarak. Memberi selamat padahal menyumpah-serapah. Rendah diri tapi menampilkan dirinya besar, penting, dan artistik.
Mengikuti tes psikologi dan berkonsultasi pada konselor, psikolog, atau profesional lainya akan membantu menguraikan masalah. Sehingga kita bisa mengetahui mana yang benar dari pendapat orang dan mana yang salah dari pikiran kita. Seperti saat jatuh Cinta dengan cewek. Beberapa cowok biasanya langsung PDKT dan menembak dalam 1-2 minggu. Tapi, juga ada yang cuma diam dan stres karena berbagai hal. Bagaimana cara mengatasinya? Pertama, rasionalisasi dulu perasaan anda! Apakah ini sekedar suka dan penasaran atau memang serius? Kalau hanya penasaran lebih baik baca posting kenapa bukan cewek yang pertama menyatakan Cinta! Karena di sini dijelaskan tentang tanda cewek yang sedang suka dengan cowok.
Banyak lagi jenis konflik yang lain. Salah satu yang paling umum adalah keraguan tentang kemampuan diri sendiri. Saat awal menulis blog ini, semua terasa begitu berat. Tidak tahu apa yang mau ditulis, tidak punya ide untuk posting selanjutnya, takut artikel jelek, takut tidak ada yang membaca, dsbg. Rintangan dan tantangan datang silih berganti. Sampai akhirnya kini saya memahami bahwa lebih baik stres saat melaksanakan daripada stres dalam merencanakan. Seiring berjalanya waktu, kini kata-kata dengan mudah mengalir untuk ditulis. Itu semua hasil dari adaptasi selama menulis blog ini.
Begitu pula saat kita memiliki konflik dan kecemasan. Ada beberapa jenis terapi dalam teori psikologi belajar: (1) Pemaparan bertahap; (2) rekonstruksi pikiran; (3) flooding ; (4) terapi kognitif. Contohnya kecemasan saat akan memulai percakapan dengan orang asing. Ada yang menganjurkan untuk tidak sembarangan mengobrol dengan orang yang tidak dikenal. Tapi, di satu sisi kita sedang membutuhkan teman bicara. Sebelum ngobrol pastinya sudah ada bayangan menakutkan di otak.
Pada terapi pemaparan bertahap, individu dihadapkan pada sumber kecemasanya secara bertahap—dari ringan sampai ke yang paling berat. Contoh: Pertama kita hanya harus menyapa, selanjutnya berjabat tangan, meningkat jadi basa-basi, dan terakhir melakukan percakapan panjang. Individu akan dibuat percaya bahwa dirinya mampu. Kedua adalah terapi rekonstruksi pikiran, di sini kita harus merubah pola pikir (mind set) terhadap suatu hal. Sehingga membuat kecemasan jadi tidak begitu mengancam. Seperti saat seorang gugup di depan cewek. Tapi, ia pernah membaca bahwa cewek rela menderita demi terlihat cantik. Ini yang membuat ia kini berpikir “Mengapa harus takut pada orang yang takut penampilanya dinilai orang”. Karena sayalah yang menilai mereka dan bukan sebaliknya.
Ketiga adalah terapi flooding, di sini individu dihadapkan pada sesuatu yang paling ditakutinya dan dikondisikan sedemikian rupa sehingga ia terpaksa menghadapinya. Contoh: Dalam suatu grup, semua teman anda berani mengajak kenalan cewek. Karena takut diolok-olok dan dicap pengecut. Mau tak mau anda akan menghadapinya. Keempat adalah terapi kognitif, di sini individu harus mengoreksi keyakinan-keyakinanya yang salah tentang sumber kecemasan. Terapi ini membantu anda untuk mengenali cacat logis. Terapi kognitif lebih efektif jika dibantu oleh seorang profesional. Karena mereka dapat memberikan alternatif pemikiran—yang lebih bijaksana. Sehingga dapat membantu kita dalam belajar menghadapi sumber kecemasan.
Referensi:
(Prasojo, 2012)
Prasojo, E. (2012, Juli 20). uchihasantoso. Retrieved Januari 12, 2014, from uchihasantoso Web Site: http://ucihasantoso.wordpress.com/2012/07/20/mengatasi-konflik-diri/
